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Change and Development of Japan
From seclusion to open door
1.
Japan followed a policy of seclusion since the beginning of the rule of Tokugawa Shogunate.
2.
However Nagasaki was opened to the Dutch and the samurai of the western clans were aware of the development of the western world through the studies of Rangaku (western learning).
3.
These samurai had great influence over their lords, the daimyo, and they supported the opening up of their country.
4.
The American showed great interest in Japan and forced her open by the threat of war in 1854 (Treaty of Kanagawa).
From feudalism to modernization
1.
Japan was ruled by an Emperor (Tenno). But he relied on the help of the chief general (the shogun) to rule the country for him. Lands were distributed to the feudal lords (daimyo) who run their clans with the help of warriors (samurai).
2.
The political institution set up by the Shogun was called the Shogunate (Bakufu), which was then the central government which commanded all the lords, the Daimyo.
3.
From 1603, Japan was in effect ruled by the Tokugawa Shogunate. It practised a policy of seclusion and a rigid caste system. But after long years of peace, the Shogunate became more and more conservative, corrupt and inefficient.
4.
The samurai leaders of the western clans made use of the coming of the Americans to embarrass the Shogunate and worked for the Restoration of the Emperor.
5.
The restoration was successful in 1868 and the new ruler, Meiji (in fact a boy emperor under the influence of the samurai leaders) started a series of reforms to modernize the country.
The Meiji Reform
Aims - To establish a rich country with strong army (Fukoku Kyohei) and to transform Japan into a modern state and then to attain world power status.
Reformers :
The young samurai leaders from the anti-Bakufu clans(especially from Choshu and Satsuma) who had helped the Restoration of the Meiji Emperor. The formed the "Meiji Oligarchy".
The Reforms
Japan borrowed Western technology, customs and institutions. A new army and navy based on western models were established. A western education system was adopted and many students were sent abroad to acquire western knowledge. Western lifestyles were accepted and new codes of law were drafted along western lines. Japan was drastically changed at the end of the 19th century.
Aspects of changes
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Related Reforms
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Positive Contribution
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Remarks
| Political
| - Creation of a central govt.
- Abolition of feudalism
- Meiji Constitution
| Japan became a strong nation state with an efficient central govt.
| The Meiji Modernization did not transform Japan into a democratic state.
| Social
| - Social changes
- Educational reforms
- Judicial reforms
| The reforms created a literate population with a strong Western outlook.
| Westernisation led to conflicts with Japanese values and moral ethics
| Economic
| - Fiscal reforms
- Agricultural reforms
- Industrial reforms
| Improved agriculture helped to support industrialization. Japan became an industrial nation in East Asia.
| Zaibatsu (large financial families) rose up and became influential in Japan politics.
| Military
| - National conscription Law 1873
- Army reforms on German model
- Naval reforms on German British model
| It prepared Japan to become a world power.
| Militant nationalism was fostered which in turn developed into expansionism and aggressive imperialism.
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The Constitution of 1889 (see the chart in P.197)
The constitution, prepared by Ito Hirobumi, was built upon a combination of the Restoration idea that the Emperor was the source of all power, and the feudal idea that the real power was exercised for the Emperor by his agents. It helped to demonstrate that the Japanese were prepared to meet the westerners by accepting their major political institution. At the same time it was to meet the demand of some clans for participation in the government.
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the Emperor was "sacred and inviolable" and the source of all power.
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a Privy Council was created as a policy-making group centred round the Emperor. They were the members from the Genro (elder statesmen who took part in the Restoration).
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The cabinet had the duty of carrying out administrative affairs. But the individual ministers of the cabinet were responsible to the Emperor, rather than collectively responsible as a cabinet.
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The Diet consisted of 2 houses, which in theory, had equal powers.
i.
The House of Peers comprised the high-ranking members of the new nobility, the appointees of the emperor, and representatives of the lower-ranking nobles and the higher tax-payers. It was to be a conservative check on the Lower House. It could veto laws passed up to it by Representatives.
ii.
The House of Representatives had members who were elected by limited suffrage.
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There were many checks on the Diet:-
i..
the emperor could veto any law.
ii.
on the advice of his ministers, the emperor could dissolve the Diet.
iii.
when the Diet was not in session, the emperor could issue imperial decrees which had the same right as laws, until the Diet could take action on them.
iv.
the ministers were responsible not to the Diet, but to the Emperor.
v.
if the Diet failed to pass a new budget, the government could carry out the budget of the previous year - the government would never be left without funds.
vi
the Emperor was financially independent of the Diet. Besides income from the vast imperial lands, the imperial family was granted an annual appropriation of 3 million yen, which did not require the approval of the Diet.
vii.
the Diet had the power to approve constitutional amendments by a 2/3s vote, but only the Emperor could initiate them.
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The Army had special status in Japan. The ministers of the army and navy had direct access to the emperor (thus equal to the prime minister). The Imperial Ordinance of 1900 limited the appointees to the ministers for war and navy to serving generals and admirals – thus gave the militarists a life-and-death hold over all subsequent cabinets. They could influence policies of the prime minister and the cabinet by threatening to resign.
"The constitution was actually a legal justification for the maintenance of power of the oligarchs." (It was superficially democratic only.)
Modernization or Westernization ?
On the surface Japan's modernization was a process of westernization which included the direct borrowing of Western knowledge, ideas, institutions and customs. In essence, only the form was borrowed from the West selectively. The Meiji Modernization was a process of "Japanisation" of Western practices in the light of Japanese values and traditions.
Definition of Modernization :
"Modern" is only a relative term, not a fixed condition or a point in time. "Modernization" can broadly be defined as a "process" by which a society replaces its "institutions", "ideas" and "practices" that it regards as no longer appropriate. In the late 19th and early 20th century, modernization may have had a somewhat narrow definition: the "far-reaching changes" in non-Western societies that have been stimulated or inspired by the activities/examples of Western nations, or the "adaptation" by non-Western countries of selected Western ideas and techniques to their own peculiar way of life.
Modernization of a country may cover political, social, economic, military and judicial changes : e.g.
political
- the enactment of constitution, the formation of political parties.
Social
- the abolition of feudalism, more social mobility and rise of new social classes, the introduction of universal education.
Economic
- the introduction of land tax, the promotion of industrialization and trade.
Military
- the setting up of a modern army, naval reforms based on the newest model.
Judicial
- the adoption of new codes and the jury system.
Internal political conditions in Japan in early 20th century
Taisho political Crisis - battle between the liberals and the army 1912-13
1.
Rise of intellectuals and middle class led to the rise of liberal and democratic ideas toward the Emperor and the government.
2.
New ideas towards the Emperor and the government
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Organ Theory – the Japanese sovereignty was belonged to the state, not the Emperor. The Emperor was an organ of a state in charge of the country’s political institutions.
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Theory of Universal Manhood Suffrage – the Diet should be elected by universal manhood suffrage and the cabinet should be responsible to the Diet. The theory was regarded as dangerous and the advocator, the Universal Suffrage League, was suppressed in 1911.
3.
With the death of Meiji Emperor 1912 and the succession of Taisho Emperor. The army determined to struggle for power. To strengthen its influence, the military ministry requested for an increase in army spending. When the prime minister opposed it the army ministry resigned. The cabinet fell because it could not be formed without the army.
4.
The government could not be formed because the army refused to appoint successor to the army ministry. The prime minister was forced to resign.
5.
Finally Katsura Taro, representing the warlords, was appointed as prime minister, with a new cabinet.
6.
However, public opinion opposed such a government. Opposition political parties asked Katsura to resign. They organised the movement to protect constitutional government and took to the streets.
7.
Katsura requested the Emperor to issue an imperial edict to suppress the opposition. It aroused more public criticism. The diet was suspended twice and it insisted to impeach the prime minister and cast a no-confidence vote against Katsura till he resigned.
8.
The crisis marked the first time when the cabinet was overthrown under the pressure of the masses. It brought a message - it is crucial to secure public support.
9.
The crisis also brought another important message - the army could affect the formation of the cabinet simply by refusing to participate in the cabinet.
External diplomatic conditions of Japan – success in modernization and her pursue for world power status
Russo-Japanese War 1904-05
Basic Causes
1.
Japan’s victory in the Sino-Japanese War encouraged her to follow a more aggressive policy. Besides, the Triple Intervention had humiliated Japan, it was natural that Japan would think of revenge.
2.
Russia and Japan were both interested in Manchuria and Korea, clash was inevitable.
Russo-Japanese Interest in Manchuria and Korea
Russian Interest
| Japanese Interest
| Russia was ambitious to expand her territorial frontier eastwards for :
1. warm-water ports – the possibility of finding one in Mediterranean was blocked by Britain, she needed to get one from N.E. Asia, esp. strategically close to Beijing and could provide means of controlling China.
2. short-cut for Trans-Siberian Railway, and pass through a populated region.
3. economic interest – Manchuria is rich in minerals, Korea rich in timber and mining resources.
4. extension of control over Korea - to prevent other powers from threatening Russian communication by sea from Port Arthur and Darien to Vladivostok.
| Japanese ambition was increased greatly as a result of her victory in Sino-Japanese War.
1. Economic and strategic interest – both Manchuria and Korea were rich in resources; They also could be used as outlet for her population; buffer against foreign expansion eastward, etc.
2. Military consideration - her desire for imperialist expansion, it was logical to choose Manchuria and Korea.
3. Korea - she regarded it as rightfully belonged to her; any power seeking to establish control over it was resented.
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Rivalry over the two areas
A. Korea -
1.
Japanese influence was replaced by Russian unexpectedly:-
Japanese minister in Korea tried to introduce reforms. His attempt was resisted by the conservatives led by Queen Min. It resulted in the murder of the Queen and stirred up strong anti-Japanese feeling. In 1896 Korean King escaped from Japanese capture and sought protection and advice from Russians. Russians were granted timber and mining concessions.
2.
Two attempts at negotiation were made but ended in failure; struggle continued.
1896 June - Yamagata-Lobanov Agreement
Both to enjoy equal rights in Korea, and to withdraw their troops and press Korean govt. to carry out financial reforms. Russia violated the terms.
1898 April - Nishi-Rosen Convention
Both to recognize the independence of Korea, to assist Korea in reorganizing her army. Russia not to obstruct development of Japanese commercial and industrial interests in Korea.
B. Manchuria -
After the Triple Intervention, the penetration of Russian influence in North China caused hostility :
1895 -
a Russo-Chinese Bank was set up for Chinese Eastern Railway to be built to complete the Trans-Siberian Railway.
1898 -
a 25-year lease of Liaodong Peninsula was granted to Russia.
1900 -
Boxer Uprising gave Russia an excuse to send troops to Manchuria to protect her nationals; Russia refused to leave after the rising despite protests of China and the powers. Japan was especially concerned.
1901 -
Russia made attempts to make Manchuria into a Russian protectorate. Though all ended in failure, it aroused Japan's hostility.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance 1902 - a deciding factor for Japan's entry into war.
Reasons:
Britain -
need for ally - She was isolated in Europe with the formation of alliances (Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy, and Dual Alliance of Russia and France), She also faced naval challenge from Germany. Russia was her traditional enemy. Japan was strengthened as "Britain of the East". A Japanese ally would help her to hinder the expansion of Russia in the Far East.
Japan -
saw imminence of war with Russia; Britain was the strongest naval power and had been friendly and sympathetic to Japan for some years.
Terms of Alliance:
1.
To respect independence and integrity of China & Korea (admitting special interests of Britain in Central China & Japan in Korea).
2.
If one power went to war to maintain the status quo of the Far East, the other power would remain neutral.
3.
If a third power joined in war against one side, the other power would come to its aid.
This alliance was to last for 5 years; it soon extended in scope to the Far East, and India, and was renewed in 1905 and 1911.
Significance:
For Britain -
ended her policy of "splendid isolation" and joined in alliance.
For Japan -
brought national pride and prestige; she was now confidence in challenging Russia with British backing, without fear of intervention from a third power - probably France.
Events leading to war
Manchurian Convention between Russia and China 1901:
Russia agreed to withdraw her troops from Manchuria within three years in three stages; but she never carried out her promise. Instead, she sent in more troops.
Japan's attempt to use diplomacy 1903:
Japan suggested she would recognize Russian interests in Manchuria if Russia would recognize her political and commercial interests in Korea. Russia was only ready to recognize Japan's economic interests. She wanted both places. Czar Nicholas II of Russia wanted a war to divert attention of discontent in Russia.
Japan's breaking off diplomatic ties with Russia 1904:
Japan saw the intention of Russia and the Japanese minister left St. Petersburg after ending all diplomatic ties with Russia. Meanwhile, Admiral Togo of Japanese fleet launched a surprise raid on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur and on 10, February, war began.
The War (Feb., 1904 - Sept., 1905)
(see p. 203)
Reasons for Japanese success
1.
Enthusiasm - Japanese people were anxious for war; Russians did not want foreign war.
2.
Army and Navy - Japanese armies and navies were small but well-equipped and efficient.
Preparations for war were made, even nurses were trained. Russians armies and navies were large but badly armed, taught in old-fashioned warfare, affected by corruption.
3.
Communications - Japanese fought close to her shores; transport was easy. Russians troops needed to be transported over long distances.
4.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance helped to isolate Russians in war.
Results of the War
When U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt agrees to mediate on the request of Japan, both sides stopped fighting. Treaty of Portsmouth was worked out at New Hampshire on September, 1905.
1. Korea - Japan's paramount political, economic and military interests were recognized.
2. Manchuria - both countries agreed to evacuate troops, with exception of railway guards. Both not to interfere in the commercial and industrial development of Manchuria. Railway and mining rights of Russia were handed over to Japan.
3. Liaodong - leased to Japan; later called Quandong Leased Territory.
4. South half of Sakhalin Island ceded to Japan - in place of indemnity.
Significance
On the whole, Russian penetration of Manchuria and Korea was checked. Japan got her sphere of interest in China. It marked the emergence of Japan.
On Japan - Japan attained a great power status by defeating Russia. Britain renewed her alliance with Japan in 1905 and in 1911, and France signed a friendship treaty on equal terms with her in 1907.
The position of the military in the government was strengthened.
Japan controlled Manchuria economically.
Russia-
Russia’s defeat in the war set off the 1905 Revolution.
Russia’s defeat showed that she could not threaten British interests in the Far East, so it paved the way for an Anglo-Russian agreement in 1907.
China -
The war further weakened the Qing government which failed to stop the troops of foreigners from fighting on her soil. She had to agree to the transfer of the Russian rights in Manchuria to Japan after the war.
Asians as a whole - Japan’s victory over an European power encouraged the Asian people. It proved that Western power could be defeated if the Asians worked hard. It led to the rise of Asian nationalism.
USA -
The strength and the ambition of the Japanese alarmed the USA.
[ 本帖最后由 Imperial_Guard 于 2009-1-18 14:49 编辑 ] |
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