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麦克唐纳
Jacques MacDonald

Macdonald, Jacques (-Étienne-Joseph)-Alexandre, Duc (duke) De Tarente
born Nov. 17, 1765, Sedan, Fr.
died Sept. 25, 1840, Courcelles

French general who was appointed marshal of the empire by Napoleon.

The son of a Scottish adherent of the exiled British Stuart dynasty, who had served in a Scots regiment in France, he joined the French Army and was a colonel when the wars of the French Revolution broke out. He was promoted to general in 1793 and to general of division in 1796.

In May 1798 Macdonald was sent to Italy, where he became governor of Rome and occupied Naples in March 1799; however, his forces were decisively routed by the Russian general A.V. Suvorov at Trebbia, Italy, on June 17–19, 1799, while he was marching north to relieve Gen. Victor Moreau at Genoa. After the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), in which Napoleon became first consul, Macdonald commanded the right wing of the Army of the Rhine. In 1800 he won Napoleon's admiration and praise for his winter crossing of the Splügen Pass from Switzerland into Lombardy, an operation that has been compared to Napoleon's own crossing of the St. Bernard Pass and one that contributed to the Treaty of Lunéville between France and Austria (1801).

Macdonald's involvement in the antiBonapartist intrigues of General Moreau in 1804 led to his discharge, and he was not recalled to active duty until 1809, when Napoleon judged his military talents indispensable. After contributing to the Austrian defeat at Wagram in July 1809, he was made marshal of the empire and duc de Tarente. He served in Austria in 1809–10 and in Catalonia in 1810–11, but he played no active part in the Russian campaign, being posted in Courland (Latvia). He was defeated by the Prussian marshal Blücher in Silesia at the Battle of Katzbach (1813) and barely escaped with his life at the decisive French defeat at Leipzig (October 1813).

Although he was reluctant to recognize the abdication of Napoleon, he served Louis XVIII loyally and did not rejoin Napoleon during the Hundred Days. After the Second Restoration of the Bourbons, he was appointed major general of the Royal Guard and named to the Legion of Honour.

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马尔蒙
Auguste Marmont

Marmont, Auguste-Frédéric-Louis Viesse de, Duc (duke) De Raguse
born July 20, 1774, Châtillon-sur-Seine, Fr.
died March 2, 1852, Venice

marshal of France whose distinguished military career ended when, as Napoleon's chief lieutenant in a battle under the walls of the city, he surrendered Paris (March 30, 1814) and a few days later took his troops into the Allied lines.

Marmont entered the artillery in 1792. At the Siege of Toulon (1793) he was noticed by Bonaparte and soon became his aide-de-camp. Marmont was so prominent in the Italian campaign (1796) that he was made a colonel at the age of 22. Two years later Bonaparte made him a general on the voyage to Egypt, and on July 7, 1806, he appointed him governor of Dalmatia. There Marmont forced the Russians to lift the siege of Ragusa in September and secured control of the Adriatic coast. As governor, he built roads and introduced a modern administration. He was made duc de Raguse in 1808 but lamented the “cruel obscurity” of a provincial command.

In the war of 1809 against Austria, Marmont again saw action, and, after the Battle of Wagram (July 5–6), he was made a marshal. With Austria's defeat he was appointed governor general of the Illyrian Provinces, a state newly created by Napoleon that included Dalmatia and other conquered territory. Marmont was called to command the French army in Portugal in May 1811 but had little success against the British; he was severely wounded in the Battle of Salamanca (July 22, 1812). The following year he commanded a corps in Germany, where his successes led to his becoming Napoleon's chief lieutenant.

At the restoration of Louis XVIII, Marmont was rewarded for his desertion of Napoleon and was made a peer of France. During the revolution of July 1830, when his troops failed to hold Paris for Charles X, he was accused of treachery. His name was stricken from the list of marshals, and he went into exile. His Mémoires appeared in nine volumes in 1856–57.

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马塞纳
Andre Massena

Masséna, André, Duke (duc) De Rivoli, Prince D'essling
born May 6, 1758, Nice, France
died April 4, 1817, Paris

leading French general of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.

Orphaned at an early age, Masséna enlisted in the Royal Italian regiment in the French service in 1775. At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, he was a sergeant at Antibes. He soon became a captain in the Revolutionary government's army of Italy at Nice, and in December 1793 he was made general of a division.

During the next two years in campaigns against the Austrians in Italy, Masséna displayed a genius for maneuvering his forces over difficult terrain. Becoming Napoleon's most trusted lieutenant during the Italian campaign of 1796–97, he won the Battle of Rivoli (Jan. 14, 1797), a key victory in the successful drive against Mantua. After Rome fell to the French in February 1798, Masséna was sent as an assistant to the French commander there; a week after his arrival, his troops mutinied and forced his recall. Nevertheless, in March 1799 he was made commander of the French army in Switzerland. He defeated a large Russian army in the Second Battle of Zürich on September 25 and then prevented another Russian army from advancing into Italy. These victories saved France from the immediate threat of invasion.

Shortly after Napoleon came to power in the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), Masséna was sent to command the badly demoralized army of Italy. He restored his troops' fighting spirit, and, by holding out against Austrian besiegers at Genoa from April 21 to June 4, he enabled Napoleon to maneuver into position behind the enemy and win the Battle of Marengo (June 14), forcing the Austrians to evacuate most of northern Italy.

Although he was made a marshal in 1804, Masséna had little respect for Napoleon's imperial regime. He reconquered Calabria from the British in 1806 and in 1808 was made duc de Rivoli. In 1809 he displayed stunning heroism in two important battles against the Austrians—at Aspern-Essling (near Vienna) on May 21–22 and at Wagram on July 5–6. Napoleon rewarded him with the title prince d'Essling in January 1810. Three months later Masséna, in poor health, was given command of the French forces that were fighting the British in Portugal. The British commander, Arthur Wellesley, duke of Wellington, defeated him at Buçaco, Port., on Sept. 27, 1810, and at Fuentes de Oñoro, Spain, on May 5, 1811. Masséna was then relieved of his command. He was in Paris in 1815 but took no part in the Hundred Days of Napoleon; instead he supported the restoration of King Louis XVIII to the French throne.

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莫蒂埃
Eduoard Mortier

Mortier, Édouard-Adolphe-Casimir-Joseph, Duc (duke) De Trevise
born Feb. 13, 1768, Cateau-Cambrésis, Fr.
died July 28, 1835, Paris

French general, one of Napoleon's marshals, who also served as prime minister and minister of war during the reign of King Louis-Philippe.

Mortier fought in the wars of the French Revolution, serving in the Army of the North, the Army of the Danube, and the Army of Helvetia. He was promoted to general in 1799, and became in May 1800 commander of the 10th military division, in charge of Paris. In April 1803 he occupied Hanover after the collapse of the peace of Amiens and in May 1804 was named one of the 18 marshals of the empire by Napoleon. In November 1805 he was defeated at Dürnstein in Austria by the Russian general Mikhail Kutuzov. He served in the Prussian campaign in 1806 and 1807 and fought in Spain in 1808, taking part in the siege of Saragossa and defeating 60,000 Spanish troops in the Battle of Ocaña. He commanded the Young Guard in the Russian campaign of 1812 and attempted to hold off the onslaught of the Allied armies outside Paris in 1814.

At the First Restoration of the Bourbons (1814), Mortier was recognized as a peer, but during the Hundred Days, in which Napoleon tried to reconquer his empire, Mortier rejoined him. After the second return of the Bourbons, he was in disgrace until 1819, when his peerage was restored. After the Revolution of July 1830, in which Charles X was replaced by Louis-Philippe, Mortier served as ambassador to St. Petersburg and was prime minister and minister of war from November 1834 to March 1835. He was killed in Giuseppe Fieschi's assassination attempt on the life of King Louis-Philippe.

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缪拉
Joachim Murat

Murat, Joachim
born March 25, 1767, La Bastide-Fortunière, Fr.
died Oct. 13, 1815, Pizzo, Calabria

Italian Gioacchino Murat
French cavalry leader who was one of Napoleon's most celebrated marshals and who, as king of Naples (1808–15), lent stimulus to Italian nationalism.

The son of an innkeeper, he studied briefly for a career in the church but enlisted in a cavalry regiment in 1787 and, when war broke out in 1792, won rapid promotion. In October 1795 he was on hand in Paris at the moment that Napoleon Bonaparte was entrusted with the mission of suppressing a royalist insurrection; Murat's contribution in bringing up cannon won him a place as aide-de-camp to Bonaparte for the Italian campaign of 1796–97. In Italy and later in Egypt (1798–99) he established his reputation as a gifted and daring leader of cavalry, and he again served his chief well in the coup d'état of 18 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), by which Bonaparte seized power as first consul. Murat's reward was the hand of Napoleon's youngest sister, Caroline.

In the Italian campaign of 1800 Murat helped win the decisive Battle of Marengo, and in 1801 he rapidly concluded the campaign against Bourbon-ruled Naples by imposing the Armistice of Foligno. As governor of Paris in 1804, he was included among the first generals promoted to the rank of marshal after Napoleon's coronation as emperor on December 2. In 1805 he played a conspicuous role in the Austerlitz campaign, helping to pin the Austrian Army in Ulm, where it was forced to surrender, and defeating Austrian and Russian cavalry on the field of Austerlitz. At Jena in 1806 his energetic pursuit completed destruction of the Prussian Army, and at Eylau in 1807 his headlong charge saved a desperate tactical situation.

Rewarded with the title of grand duke of Berg and Clèves, Murat began to have dreams of sovereignty, and when he was sent to act as Napoleon's lieutenant in Spain he tried to gain possession of the unoccupied Spanish throne. His intrigues led instead to Spanish opposition and a rising in Madrid that, though quelled (May 2, 1808), ended his hopes. Though Napoleon gave the Spanish throne to his brother Joseph, he rewarded Murat with Joseph's former place as king of Naples, under the name Joachim-Napoléon (or Gioacchino-Napoleone, in Italian).

In Naples Murat not only satisfied his own vanity by a lavish court display but also carried out important reforms, breaking up the vast landed estates and introducing the democratic Code Napoléon. The administration was opened to advancement by merit, cotton growing was encouraged, and effective measures were taken against the chronic Neapolitan brigandage. Murat even foresaw the unification of Italy, a development at whose head he sought to place himself through the encouragement of secret societies that eventually played a major role in the Risorgimento.

In 1812 Murat took part in Napoleon's Russian campaign and once more distinguished himself at Borodino; but, left in charge of the shattered Grand Army during the retreat from Moscow, he abandoned it to try to save his kingdom of Naples. In 1813 he wavered between loyalty to Napoleon and negotiation with the Allies. The Austrians signed a treaty with him, but the former Bourbon rulers of Naples raised objections, and his situation was in doubt when Napoleon returned to France in 1815. He then staked his hopes on an appeal to Italian nationalism, but his Neapolitans were defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino, and he was forced to flee to Corsica. In October he made a last, hopeless attempt to recover Naples virtually unaided and was taken prisoner and shot.

Murat left two sons and two daughters. The eldest son, Napoléon-Achille (1801–47), went to the United States in 1821, took U.S. citizenship, and died in Florida. The younger son, Napoléon-Lucien-Charles (1803–78), went to the United States in 1825 but returned to France in 1848 and was recognized as a prince by Napoleon III, with the title of Prince Murat, under the Second Empire. From him descended the princely house of Murat surviving into the 20th century.

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内伊
Michel Ney

Ney, Michel, Duc (duke) D'elchingen, Prince De La Moskowa
born Jan. 10, 1769, Sarrelouis, Fr.
died Dec. 7, 1815, Paris

one of the best known of Napoleon's marshals (from 1804), who pledged his allegiance to the restored Bourbon monarchy when Napoleon abdicated in 1814. Upon Napoleon's return in 1815, Ney rejoined him and commanded the Old Guard at the Battle of Waterloo. Under the monarchy, again restored, he was charged with treason, for which he was condemned and shot by a firing squad.

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乌迪诺
Nicolas Oudinot

Oudinot, Nicolas-Charles, Duke (duc) De Reggio
born April 25, 1767, Bar-le-Duc, France
died Sept. 13, 1847, Paris

general, administrator, and marshal of France in the Napoleonic Wars whose career illustrates the opportunities to rise in the French army after the Revolution.

Oudinot was the son of a businessman. In 1784 he joined France's royal army but, since commoners were barred from promotion, resigned in 1787. After the French Revolution, however, he became the leader of Meuse volunteers (1792) and was transferred to the regular army the following year, rising to general of brigade (1794) for his heroic resistance at Kaiserslautern. Becoming general of division (1799) and chief of staff under André Masséna, Oudinot fought in Switzerland and Italy and then commanded an elite division of grenadiers (1805–07) in fighting at Austerlitz and Ostrolenka.

Oudinot was promoted to marshal after the Battle of Wagram (1809) and was created Duke de Reggio in 1810. After serving as administrator in Holland (1809–12) and fighting in the Russian campaign, he was badly defeated in 1813 at Grossbeeren, Prussia, after which he was superseded by Michel Ney. Following Napoleon's abdication in 1814, Oudinot rallied to Louis XVIII, remaining loyal to him during the Hundred Days (1815). He served in Spain in 1823 and was governor of the Invalides (veterans' hospital) from 1842 until his death.

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佩里尼翁
Dominique Perignon

Perignon, Dominique-Catherine, marquis de
born May 31, 1754, Grenade, Fr.
died Dec. 25, 1818, Paris

general and marshal of France, active during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.

A retired officer of the royal army, Pérignon resumed active service in 1792. Operations against the Spaniards won him the rank of general and, in 1794, command of the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees. As ambassador to Madrid he negotiated the Spanish alliance (1796). While fighting in Italy (1799) he was wounded and taken prisoner by the Russians for 18 months, returning to France to become a senator (1801) and a marshal (1804). He was appointed governor general of Parma (1806) and commander in chief at Naples (1808) and became a count of the empire in 1811. After Napoleon's abdication he rallied to Louis XVIII, was made a peer and later a commanding officer at Toulouse (1815) and Paris (1816), and was created marquis in 1817.

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波尼亚托夫斯基
Josef Poniatowski

Poniatowski, Józef Antoni
born May 7, 1763, Vienna
died Oct. 19, 1813, Leipzig

Polish patriot and military hero, who became a marshal of France.

Initially an officer in the Austrian army, Poniatowski was transferred to the Polish army in 1789 at the request of his uncle, King Stanislaw II August Poniatowski of Poland. He distinguished himself against the Russians in 1792 and took part in Tadeusz Kosciuszko's anti-Russian revolt in 1794. Poniatowski retired in 1795, after the Third Partition of Poland, but he was named commander in chief of the Duchy of Warsaw by Napoleon in 1807. He led a Polish corps in Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812 and during the Battle of Leipzig (Oct. 16–19, 1813) was made a marshal of France. On the last day of the battle the wounded marshal died in an attempt to cross the Elster River on horseback.

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苏尔特
Nicolas Soult

Soult, Nicolas-Jean de Dieu, Duc (duke) De Dalmatie
born March 29, 1769, Saint-Amans-la-Bastide, later Saint-Amans-Soult, Fr.
died Nov. 26, 1851, Saint-Amans-Soult

French military leader and political figure who was noted for his courage in battle and his opportunism in politics.

Upon the death of his father in 1785, Soult enlisted in the infantry. At the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789–92), he was a sergeant at Strasbourg. He served under several commanders and was made a general by François-Joseph Lefebvre for his conduct in the Battle of Fleurus (June 1794). In March 1799 he replaced the wounded Lefebvre at the Battle of Stokach.

Soult built a reputation for vigour, boldness, and method. Under Napoleon he was put in charge of the southern part of the Kingdom of Naples (1800–02) and in 1804 was made a marshal of France. His reputation was further enhanced by his significant role in French victories at Ulm, Austerlitz, and Jena in 1805–06, though he was less successful in Poland at Eylau and Heilsberg (1807). Created duc de Dalmatie and sent to Spain late in 1808, he was soon put in charge of all French armies involved in the Peninsular War, where he was opposed by the English under Arthur Wellesley (later duke of Wellington). Soult remained in Spain for most of the next five years, but eventually Wellesley forced his outnumbered troops to retreat and defeated him at Toulouse (April 1814), four days after Napoleon had abdicated.

During the First Restoration (1814) Soult declared himself a royalist, but during Napoleon's Hundred Days (1815) he again supported Bonaparte, acting as his chief of staff at Waterloo. Soult was exiled at the start of the Second Restoration (1815–30) but was recalled in 1819. Under King Louis-Philippe he presided over three ministries (October 1832–July 1834, May 1839–March 1840, and October 1840–September 1847) and was usually minister of war as well as president of the council; he was responsible for the French conquest of Algeria during the 1840s. In 1848, when Louis-Philippe was overthrown, Soult declared himself a republican. His Mémoires appeared in three volumes in 1854.